For much of the twentieth century, the golden jackal was regarded as a species of south-eastern Europe, rarely recorded beyond the Balkans and largely absent from Western scientific and public discourse. Occasional reports began to appear further west towards the end of the century, but these were initially treated as anomalies. Over time, however, such records accumulated into a consistent and well-documented pattern, confirming the species’ expansion across Central and Western Europe.

The westward expansion of the golden jackal was gradual rather than sudden. It first appeared through scattered observations that attracted little attention. From the 1980s onwards, individuals dispersing from Balkan populations were increasingly recorded beyond the species’ traditional range. Confirmed sightings in Italy, Slovenia, and Austria coincided with a marked rise in jackal numbers in south-eastern Europe. By the mid-1990s, the species had reached Germany. This pattern points to sustained range expansion rather than a few exceptional long-distance movements.

Since then, the picture has sharpened. Stable breeding populations are now documented in Slovenia, Austria and Germany. In Switzerland and the Netherlands, repeated and geographically dispersed records indicate a regular presence, even though the species has not yet been formally recognised as permanently established. Importantly, this spread has occurred through natural dispersal and local reproduction, with no evidence of deliberate or accidental human introduction.

Historically, the golden jackal’s range stretched from south-eastern Europe across the Middle East to South-East Asia. Its presence in Western Europe therefore represents a genuine range expansion rather than a return to areas where the species previously occurred. This distinguishes the jackal from the grey wolf, whose recent population increase in Europe and North America largely reflects recolonisation following centuries of persecution and local extinction.

A transatlantic parallel

A similar process can be observed in North America with the coyote. Over the course of the 20th century, the species expanded far beyond its original range in the central and western parts of the continent. Today, coyotes are found across most of North America, from coast to coast and from Alaska to Central America. This expansion occurred despite decades of sustained control efforts. It is estimated that the canid’s range has grown by around forty per cent since the mid-twentieth century – a greater increase than that experienced by any other North American carnivore.

These parallel developments make it increasingly likely that expanding mid-sized canids will meet apex predators in areas where the two species did not previously coexist. In Europe, this has drawn attention to the interactions between golden jackals and wolves, particularly in landscapes heavily influenced by human land use.

Settlement patterns in human-modified landscapes

Across Europe, golden jackals are most frequently found in mixed landscapes combining farmland, wetlands, infrastructure and small settlements. These environments offer a wide range of food sources and typically have lower densities of large carnivores. Such landscape types are common in Western Europe and often overlap with areas where wolves are intermittently or sporadically present.

Monitoring data and field observations suggest that jackals tend to establish territories where wolves are present only sporadically or not at all. Several studies on interactions between the two species have examined this spatial pattern, providing quantitative support for observations made during the jackal’s westward expansion.

Evidence for wolf suppression of jackals

One of the most detailed studies of wolf–jackal interactions brought together several sources of evidence, including historical records of both species’ distributions, hunting data from Bulgaria and Serbia, and field surveys conducted in eight areas where wolves had recently re-established territories.

Across these different levels of analysis, a consistent pattern was observed. As wolf numbers increased, jackal numbers generally declined. In seven of the eight areas examined, jackals either disappeared or were confined to the outer edges of wolf territories once wolves became established. This indicates that wolves limit jackal presence through direct killing, territorial exclusion or changes in jackal behaviour.

The study also showed that this effect was less pronounced in landscapes heavily influenced by human activity. Where wolves were intensively hunted or occurred at low densities due to habitat fragmentation, jackals were more likely to persist or continue expanding despite the presence of wolves.

Similar patterns in North America

Comparable interactions have been documented in North America between wolves and coyotes. Wolves reduce coyote numbers over large areas through direct killing and by defending their territories. However, in some regions, both species can coexist.

Research shows that coyotes cope with this pressure by being highly adaptable. They eat a wider range of foods, rely more on small prey, adjust when they are active, and use space more flexibly than wolves. These strategies allow coyote populations to persist in some forested areas and in landscapes heavily modified by humans.

Golden jackals share several of these traits, including a broad diet and flexible use of space. This may help explain why they can persist in areas where wolf numbers are low or unevenly distributed.

How expanding canids are treated in law

The arrival of canid species in new regions also raises legal questions. Under international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), an alien species is defined as one that has been introduced by humans outside its natural range.

CBD guidance makes clear that species expanding their range on their own are not considered alien, even if they move into areas where they were not previously found. Based on this guidance, legal analyses conclude that golden jackals in Western Europe and coyotes in Latin America do not qualify as invasive alien species.

This does not mean that management is never appropriate. Where these animals cause ecological or social problems, action may still be taken, but such measures are not covered by laws aimed specifically at controlling invasive species.

(This story was also published here)